Aamozgar

Development Theories: Afghanistan and Angola in Practice

Aamozgar02 — Mon, 06 Aug 2012 03:25:13 +0000

Nineteen-century development theorists believed in a unilinear, inevitable, and natural process of development that at times were challenged by societal blockages. Therefore, it was necessary to address those challenges so the “mundane” process of development could proceed. Durkheim views were the most prominent of the time. To him, pre-industrial societies were based on clan and hordes where legitimacy came from likeness, religion, morality, and the absolute domination of “collective consciousness” (Harrison, 1990). This was a mechanical society. The industrialized Europe of nineteen century however increased in heterogeneity, individualism, and broke from traditionalism while a steady decline in common consciousness was apparent which made space for a new social order, a more organic one (Harrison, 1990). The inevitable process of social evolution, slow and steady, was the accepted norm. First World War at the beginning of twentieth century however greatly discredited these unilinear development theories and evolutionism as a whole. Nonetheless, the idea that societies constantly go from lower stages to higher ones and evolve from simpler societies into more complex ones has set the tone for future development theorists (Harrison, 1990).

In the 1960s, Durkheim ideas resurfaced again, this time as a solution to the underdevelopment problems of the third world. But over this period many new development theories had emerged. Diffusion or the spread of cultural, political, and economic behaviors and innovations constituted the main challenge to evolutionism. Diffusion of technology and innovation is about “equally real transmission of cultural artifacts and other ‘traits’ from one region or community to another” through interaction (Harrison, 1990). Structural functionalism, with its focus on “role and institutions” rather than individuals, surfaced as yet another prominent base for development theorists. Structural functionalism assumes that societies are self-sufficient, have adaptive social systems, and are varying from each other (Harrison, 1990). These developments set the tone for many development theories to emerge which I will be studying in this paper using Afghanistan, an underdeveloped country with considerable indirect colonial experience, and Angola, a resource rich country with low standards of living and high rates of poverty but with considerable colonial experience, as my two case studies. The paper, using development (or underdevelopment) theories, first looks at colonial experience in the two countries, then studies cold war ramifications in each case study, and finally will briefly explain the civil war implications in each country.

Colonial Experience:

Angola:

In 1575 Portugal established its first citadel in Luanda, current capital of Angola, for trade purposes and cultural influence. Portugal up until late 19th century, before the “scramble for Africa”, had no intentions of fully colonizing Angola or occupying it. As the number of forts and establishments increased over time, so did the slave trade and raw material exchange. Portuguese wouldn’t interfere in social and political affairs of the native people for a long time, giving preference only to trade. It was in the Berlin Conference (1884) that Portugal officially claimed Angola (or the areas making current Angola) and in mid 1920s draw it current boundaries (Hanson, 2008). Early in the 1940s, the “last resistance” was broken and Angola was the uncontested Portuguese colony. At one point, from 1951 to 1961, Angola was referred to as the “Portuguese overseas Province”. Classical Marxists like Rosa Luxemburg and Lenin argued that imperialist powers, while can help the colony to develop, will use markets to integrate capitalism into the economy of their colonies. Lenin also talked about Banks providing credit for businessmen so they are easily “absorbed” into the international capitalist market. But the Angola experience gives a different account. Despite having a four century long presence in Angola especially in trade and capital accumulation areas, Portugal still couldn’t manage to drag its oldest colony into the capitalist market. Neither there existed banks to provide credit and help entrepreneurs and merchants financially. This colony, parallel to arguments of neo-Marxists and “Underdevelopment” theorists, didn’t modernize either. “Most Angolans live in poverty, and development indicators for the country have improved little with a state hobbled by an entrenched patronage system, a dearth of skilled workers, and the distortionary effects of an economy dominated by oil.” (Hanson, 2008).

That being said, unlike Baran, who rightfully argues that it is “in the interests of capitalism to keep the backward world as an indispensable hinterland which provided the West with valuable raw”, there is certain benefits that could only come from being a colony (Harrison, 1990). Those include having the chance to experience firsthand what it is like to be developed and modernized in addition to educational, cultural, and social experiences coupled with a positive, prolonged, process of acculturation.

Colonialism also means, at times and as needed by the colonial power, breaking with traditional values and aspirations in favor of modernity and development. David Lerner mentions of obedience, loyalty, “no deviation”, limited access to information, xenophobia, and a general distaste of change as signs of traditionalism that would always pose a challenge to modernity and change (Harrison, 1990). In case of Angola, it was only after 1920s that the Portugal started a potential reform program which faced fierce resistance. Levy, Parson’s student and influenced by him, argued that “in the Third World, social and economic interaction is generally underpinned by traditional values which emphasize the specific, known characteristics of interacting individuals, rather than the impersonal, formal, ‘rational’ criteria that allegedly operate in industrialized societies” (Harrison, 1990). While, if the state was well armed and resourceful, changing those features was easier in the past, the development of international organizations and globalization has made the task much harder now. Imposing values while forcing citizens to refrain from their long-established ways of life will certainly cause grievances in the global arena. Hoselitz argues, for any economic reforms to be enacted, cultural and socio-cultural factors are to be transformed first (Harrison, 1990). To him, “innovation comes from social and cultural traits, and so economy is related to those factors.”

Afghanistan:

Afghanistan throughout its modern history (since 1747) has been invaded four times by alien forces. While the last two (soviet invasion in 1979 and US invasion in 2001) lasted for decades with the foreign forces establishing bases and “forts” in the Afghan land, the first two (both Afghan-Anglo wars of 19^th century), which could’ve made the biggest difference in the development course of Afghanistan, didn’t last long. While Afghanistan didn’t benefit from imperialism (in the Classical Marxist sense), it was in the receiving end of all the bad consequences of colonial military conquests including badly demarcated borders (or frontiers), isolation, subjugation, and planting the seeds of a radical culture coupled with xenophobia and chauvinism.

Every time, in 19^th century, British troops passed Khybar Pass to attack Afghan Amirs, it ended in their replacement of the Amir with a puppet (Shah Shuja and Abdur Rahman Khan respectively) and the eventual withdrawal of colonial troops. Afghanistan wasn’t a colony but a buffer state (the worst status during the colonialism) given the distinct purpose of keeping two empires, Czarist Russia and British Empire, from colliding. Amirs of Afghanistan wasn’t good at that either which is why a change in administration in order every now and then. The second invasion, known as ‘Second Anglo-Afghan War’, ended up in Amir Abdur Rahman khan getting his throne back. But that proved costly because Amir set the wrong foundations for a modern Afghan government. Indeed, “Amir Abdur Rahman nicknamed by his British colonial masters, the “Iron Emir” for his cruel two-decade-long rule laid the foundation for an ill-suited centralized state structure that lasted for most of the 20th century.” (Shahrani, 2002). Abdur-Rahman Khan’s rule was based on subjugation (internal imperialism), a defensive Jihadi attitude, underdevelopment, isolation, and one based on racial hatred and ethnic discrimination.

By only replacing the top leadership, British was avoiding subjugation of tribal Afghans with the features of Charles Tilly’s traditional society and who defied exertion of any influence from Kabul. “group-feeling”, In Ibn-Khaldun’s words, was strong among Pashtun tribes which is why there was much bloodshed and rivalry over the Throne (Ibn-Khaldun). In addition, “Swiss cheese” model was selected over “American cheese” model of governance when the state decided to control only the main Bazaars, trade hubs, and important trade routes, allowing traditional communities to live on their own standards. Charles Tilly argued that “the absence of extensive kinship or tribal organizations favored the development of the national state in Western Europe.” (Tilly, 1994). Therefore if state building efforts and indeed modernization initiatives were to succeed, tribal authority figures and power structures should have been removed and state-authority guaranteed either by the colonial powers or the state.

Cold War (Proxy Battlegrounds):

Angola:

In Angola, power was publicized in 1975 after Portugal grant Angola its independence. Prior to independence, three nationalist parties emerged: the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). MPLA “nominally” came to power in the face of opposition mainly from UNITA (Turin, 2010). While both the parties had socialist tendencies, scholars write, MPLA announced a full feldged Marxist agenda while UNITA, in an effort to attract international support, called for a capitalist system. Soon the US started supporting UNITA against the USSR backed MPLA. The latter used oil revenues and was staffed with urban intellectuals while UNITA was using diamond and other natural resources to fund its operations. US in particular supported UNITA through its CIA wing as South Africa sent combatants while USSR supported MPLA and Cuba deployed some 50,000 fighters in Angola.

Cold war in addition to the Civil War which had started in 1975 virtually undermined any potential reform program for modernization of Angola while severely damaging the infrastructure and communications of the country. Neo-Marxist’s underdevelopment theorists like Baran, Frank, or the dependency theory itself, which has its roots in Latin American countries, “regard ‘underdevelopment’, and not ‘development’, as the direct result of the spread of international capitalism” (Harrison, 1990). While it is not capitalism per say, international involvement in Angola has driven it towards “underdevelopment”.

Cabinda, the resource rich Northern Province, is separated with a strip from mainland Angola. It is especially rich in oil and single handedly make more than 50% of Angola’s GDP (Hanson, 2008). Angola is China’s biggest oil exporter and has good relations with them. It is also rich in other natural minerals including diamonds and different precious stones. Rostow’s theory of development is centered around economic growth over a five stage blueprint for development: 1) traditional subsistence economy, 2)pre-take off, 3)take off, 4)economic maturation, and 5) high consumption (Harrison, 1990). Despite having rich resources of oil and other natural resources is ranked 162 out of 177 on the UN Human Development Index (HDI). Rather the “resource curse” theory of Paul Collier should provide better answers. According to this theory, in countries with abundance of natural resources, specifically non-renewable resources like “minerals and fuels”, there happens less economic growth and/or development. Decline in competitiveness in the market, mismanagement, or corrupt governmental institutions usually cause

all this (Fouché, 2009 ).

Afghanistan:

In April of 1978, power after decades of struggles by the “urban educated intelligentsia” of Afghanistan fell off to the “Khalq” (Shahrani, 2002). The radio announcement read, “For the first time, power has come to the people. The last remnants of the imperialist tyranny, despotism and the royal dynasty have been ended.” (Amte, 2009)

While “khalq” was referring to people and the demise of a dynasty, it was mainly an indicator as to who was on power, the Khalq faction of People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). PDPA was formed in 1965, split into Khalq and Parcham in 1967 but was unified back in 1977 at the urging of Soviet Union. This was a good sign except that these “urban intelligentsia” didn’t quite know what they were doing. Tilly defines a national/modern state as part of his extensive on emergence of European States as “governing multiple contiguous regions and their cities by means of centralized, differentiated, and autonomous structures.” (Tilly, 1994). The Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA) in the 1980s was anything but able to govern its territory (making and enforcing laws) or be autonomous of internal/external forces.

Afghan rulers especially Daud Khan during his premiership from 1953 to 1963 excelled at manipulating the two Cold War powerhouses, Soviet Union and the US, in his favor. Little did he know that Soviet Union had already penetrated Afghan army. Daod Khan was however a reformer himself, in his own way, and was a radical reformist at that. While early evolutionists argued that tradition and modernity are incompatible, M.G.Smith argued that “it was often the case that allegedly opposing pattern variables would coexist in a single society” (Harrison, 1990). It seemed as if, Musahiban, the family which ruled Afghanistan for almost fifty years was following a Smithean development philosophy. “Encapsulated” reform programs targeting urban areas was how Zahir Shah and his avuncular rule of 40 years approached modernization. But just when it seemed like Daod Khan, Zahir Shah’s cousin who had taken power through a coup de tat, would change things using more drastic measures, he was deposed and killed with his family by the local communists in PDPA.

The biggest problem with a communist doctrine in Afghanistan, as in Angola, was that these were two third-world, pre-industrial, and highly underdeveloped countries. Marxism theory and his idea of class struggles and a ‘Worker Revolution’ were far from reality in such backward societies. The goal however was for these third-world countries to eventually join the communism realm, once they are evolved enough. Fearing total collapse of “friendly state”, Red Army invaded Afghanistan in late 1989.

But the US and the UK, fearing the ambitions of Soviet Union after Second World War, started the cold war, a proxy war with no direct contact. That meant any reform programs that the ill-administered and poorly run PDPA had for modernizing Afghanistan and for state-building efforts, would be challenged by the US backed militia often dubbed as “freedom fighters” in the western media. Egypt, China, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia all supported the initially seven, often contending, militia parties against the Soviet Union backed government in Kabul.

DRA was a secular state, the first in Afghan history, which had extensive plans for women’s rights, gender equality, decreed a new family code with much liberal provisions including setting the minimum age for marriage and banning dowry, a flawed land reform program, and a ban on usury (Amte, 2009). Following Smelser’s theory of modernization, PDPA wanted to transform subsistence agriculture to “cash crops”, diffuse complex technology from USSR, extensively urbanize the country, and industrialize (Harrison, 1990). While to Smelser the stages can overlap, war and natural disaster can have major impact on the process as a whole (either in a good way or in a bad way). PDPA also seemed to have embraced, probably unknowingly, the neo-Dukhiem structural functionalist perspective which “sees social change in the Third World as a necessary factor in economic growth” (Harrison, 1990).

Another major factor to the setback of development efforts under PDPA in Afghanistan was the lack thereof of capitalist development which, according to Tilly, needs a “legal system, a stable currency, and public order” to succeed (Tilly, 1994). Afghanistan however as part of its first “modern” state nationalized industries and would promote Marxism-Leninism values of command economy and a centralized system.

The anti-state Mujahidin militiamen eventually succeeded in removing leftists from power in 1992, almost three years after Soviet troops had withdrawn. Right after Soviet Union withdraw from Afghanistan, US abandoned Afghanistan in midst of political and economic turmoil. This is in line with Gunder Frank’s neo-Marxist “World Systems Theory” in which he divides countries in three categories, core, periphery, and semi-periphery (Harrison, 1990). For him, the core always manipulates and exploits the periphery, and the semi-periphery will do the same to the periphery. “Metropolis vs. satellites” is another term Frank uses to refer to the same trend (Harrison, 1990). Americans fulfilled their role as a core.

Civil War Breaks Out

Angola and Afghanistan

Civil war brook out in both countries right after occupiers, Soviet Union in case of Afghanistan and Portugal in case of Angola, retreated. José Eduardo dos Santos, leader of MPLA, is president of Angola since 1979. He was challenged by the “power hungry” Jonas Savimbi of UNITA militarily until around 1992 when a peace deal was struck and the first elections were held (M. M. Colombo, 1993). The result of polls declared dos Santos by a slight advantage the winner. This angered Jonas Savimbi who was supposed to go for a run-off but instead boycotted the elections and the civil war continued. The country run its course in a civil war that lasted for 27 years only to end in 2002 when Savimbi was killed.

“War between the two sides shook the country for twenty-seven years, during which an estimated 1.5 million people died, over 4 million were internally displaced, and another five hundred thousand fled the country.” (M. M. Colombo, 1993). In addition, economic structures including agriculture farms are deranged filled with landmines. The oil economy is also, for the reasons mentioned, not helping. The country faces the challenge of forming a democracy that works, and a program to reconstruct its social and economical structures.

Dependency theory, of neo-Marxists, argues that developing countries although would try Import-Substitution Industrialization (ISI) policies to become self-sufficient through diffusionism. Since producers of technology are not from the developing country, they are still dependent on the country from where the innovation has originated (Harrison, 1990). In Angola, experts express concern about the government's ability to maintain Chinese projects after they are completed. “The government will need to focus more attention on planning and organization to ensure the sustainability and transfer of know-how—or risk relying on the Portuguese and others returning in the near future to rebuild what the Chinese have just completed,” write Campos and Vines (Maier, 1997). But building a more educated and skilled population will take years and so Angola remains dependent on China.

In Afghanistan, the communist regime with a number of ill-conceived and poorly implemented reform program, were able to stay on power for two more years even after Soviet Union withdrew its troops in 1989, which meant US had no more interest in the region. But that didn’t stop the fighting. After Mujahidin took over Kabul, tensions had already escalated. Soon Kabul was turned into a contested areas among local warlords each supported by a neighboring country.

Pakistan unhappy with how things turned out, with Jamiati Islami of Rabbani in Kabul, instigated Hekmatyar to get to power by force. That meant firing rockets and bringing the battle to Kabul. It was devastating in terms of damaged infrastructure and furthering the ethnic/identity friction in the Afghan society. As neo-Evolutionists had put it, “evolution of societies is not inevitable.” (Harrison, 1990). Because Afghan society not only hadn’t progressed but ended up being more aggressive, prone to the use of violence, showing more biases, and simply more traditional. Grentocracy, coupled patriarchy and even signs of absolutist Sultanism was apparent in the local Jihadi commanders of this time.

Conclusion

There are quite a number of development theories with their bases in the likes of Parson and Durkheim theories. Some more specific and some with broader perspectives, each one is designed to provide answers to intriguing questions about society. Evolutionism, diffusions, and structural functionalism create the core for most contemporary development theories. Looking at colonial intervention, cold war period, and civil wars, and then using these theories to make sense of some military and political developments, this paper showed that of the pile of development theories, a single one is usually impossible to explain a situation.

Also, since development processes and social change is not always the same in different countries, it is hard to rely on a single theoretical perspective to make sense of certain conditions. Political culture, economic structure, social trends, and cultural aspects of societies are always different and yet important.

Bibliography

Amte. (2009, July 25). Retrieved 5 10, 2012, from Revolution and counterrevolution in Afghanistan: http://amte.wordpress.com/2009/07/25/afghanistan%E2%80%99s-saur-revolution-of-1978-and-the-u-s-backed-counterrevolution-that-followed/

Emadi, H. (Jan. 26, 1991). State, Modernisation and Rebellion: US-Soviet Politics of Domination of Afghanistan. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 26, No. 4 , 176-179+181+183-184.

Fouché, G. (2009 , February 5). Managing the 'curse' of natural resources: charter offers guide for politicians. Retrieved 5 12, 2012, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2009/feb/05/curse-of-natural-resources

Goldman, M. F. (Spring, 1984). Soviet Military Intervention in Afghanistan: Roots & Causes. Polity, Vol. 16, No. 3 , 384-403.

Hanson, S. (2008, July 21). Angola's Political and Economic Development. Retrieved 5 10, 2012, from http://www.studentpulse.com/articles/223/2/major-development-challenges-facing-the-republic-of-angola-completing-the-democratic-transition-and-making-government-work

Harrison, D. (1990). Sociology of Modernization and Development. New York: Unwin Hyman LTD.

Ibn-Khaldun. Al Muqaddimah.

M. M. Colombo, M. F. (1993). The Early Stage of the Recurrent Cholera Epidemic in Luanda, Angola. European Journal of Epidemiology , 563-565.

Maier, K. (1997). Promises and Lies. The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 35, No. 3 , 529-531.

Shahrani, N. (2002). War, Factionalism, and Islam in Afghanistan. American Anthropologist , 715-722.

Stevens, C. (1976). The Soviet Union and Angola. African Affairs, Vol. 75, No. 299 , 137-155.

Turin, D. R. (2010). Retrieved 5 15, 2012, from Major Development Challenges Facing the Republic of Angola: Completing the Democratic Transition and Making Government Work: http://www.studentpulse.com/articles/223/2/major-development-challenges-facing-the-republic-of-angola-completing-the-democratic-transition-and-making-government-work

Written by:

Mujib Rahman Abid, student at American University of Afghanistan (AUAF), Kabul, Afghanistan

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* image source: http://flagpedia.net/data/flags/normal/af.png

Impossible Respect

Aamozgar02 — Sun, 26 Feb 2012 22:49:12 +0000

* 1

I was taking notes on my computer in Physics class, and got bored. I therefore spontaneously followed the stream of my interest, and went to one of many Korean portal web sites. On the upper right corner, world issues part grabbed my attention, and so I began browsing through. I was just looking at the photos but titles, and suddenly one photo sucked all of my interest: a woman with tears pouring out sitting in a prison.

* * *

Miss Gulnaz is only 21 years old, but is an Afghan woman whose future has been shattered already. She was living in a prison under a potential nightmare that she might have to live permanently with a man who sexually abused her.

2 years ago, a strange man with a shabby cloth came into Gulnaz’s house when her mother had left for a pharmacy. He locked all the doors and any openings inside home, and raped her. She did everything she could, but apparently she was too weak to resist his vicious power.

Sadly, Gulnaz decided not to disclose this fact due to an Afghan social custom, honor killing: she was to be killed by her family if the family learned about it.

However, it was a time problem for the fact to be known to the people. Already a baby was growing inside of her stomach. The police belatedly began investigating the crisis, yet she was accused of adultery instead, and imprisoned. In the most notorious prison system in Kabul, she bore her baby.

More dumfounded episode continued. A court judge forced her to marry the man, in place of releasing her from the prison. The judge claimed that this method was going to restore the family honor. At first, Gulnaz strongly opposed to the judge’s claim.

Yet, she decided, if not had to decide, to accept this suggestion. She was already “predestined” to be murdered by her family even after her jail term. The most important part of her decision was for her 2-year-old daughter. Although Gulnaz’s life was already messed up, her daughter’s life should be better than this.

As one filming group of the European Union created a documentary film on Gulnaz, the public began learning about her story. The EU failed to p

remier this film, but Gulnaz worried about the safety of other Afghan women in it. The Department of State of the United States showed its hope that Afghan legislature passes a proper law, respecting Gulnaz’s right as a human.

It is not known if Gulnaz is actually going to marry the man who has raped her, and then released from the prison system. However, the Afghan prosecution proclaimed that her imprisonment will be reduced to 3 years, and changed the suspicion from adultery to “a crime that was not reported early enough.” The man is also imprisoned in another prison system, but continues denying his adultery.

* * *

From history, English and religion classes, I learned that particularly the Middle East area is full of religious and cultural conflicts. Every time I faced this concept in classes, I always thought that people should respect each other’s cultures simultaneously when they are respecting their traditions. However, when I read this article, I could not close my mouth because I was too shocked. At first, although it was very upsetting, I attempted to stay calm and to understand the culture that I normally do not encounter myself. Yet as I read through the whole article, I realized that this tradition is not just about cultures, but status of women in Afghanistan. As an activist for social and political diversity in the world, I could not stand how the women are portrayed in the society. I certainly do not want to generalize that every single tradition in Afghanistan degrades women’s status, but if even the police, who is supposed to show social justice to the public, does not help the Afghan woman, then how do women survive?

I do not consider a number of women sitting in prisons without access to see the daylight funny nor appropriate. I do not think that women not deserving rights to be loved by their families “traditional.” It is absolutely true that everyone should respect each other’s viewpoints, but if it violates human rights and equality of humans, then the respect disappears. Yes, this is the point where people begin fighting for the human basic rights.

Written by:

Sophie Lee, student at Oregon Episcopal School (OES), OR, USA

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* 1 Image Source: http://www.meddlingkids.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/gulnaz.jpg

Outside of a Small Black Balloon

Aamozgar02 — Wed, 19 Oct 2011 02:09:48 +0000

* 1
I believe in breaking out of my comfort zone.

I’ve been imprisoned in a small and stifling black balloon through which I couldn’t see anything. As a kid, I was an extremely shy girl. I never spoke up in classes. I never looked at a new person’s face, maybe a little glance. I never smiled in the crowd even though I was happy. I always wore what my mom told me to wear because she had a ‘perfect’ outfit for me every day. I was a docile kid who was, I mean, who was ‘made’ to be docile. However, I didn’t shut my mind totally off. I did have something that had spurred me. ‘Studying abroad in Canada.’ I wasn’t sure, but perhaps this was something that I’d been secretly wanting to hear.

No parents, but by myself. This was new; exotically new. My first two months living with a host family was difficult without my parents. Giving speeches in classes; being creative in school projects; picking daily outfits by myself: these were not my favorites. I kept getting low grades because of these, and I got angry at myself. My friends suggested I talk to my parents about my new life, but I did not want to do it. I was always jealous of my friends who could disclose their concerns to anyone other than their parents. Why could I not do such a thing? Why could I not be so independent?

Long, perhaps sh

ort in reality, depression had passed in Canada, and I finally graduated middle school. Then I came to America to spend my high school years. I still didn’t like that I had to go through my least favorite jobs, but I was a little more confident about how I could do things differently compared to the past years. I spoke up, at least once, in every class; I looked up at a new person’s face; and of course I picked my daily outfits. I was still docile, but I was not ‘made’ to be docile.

After I came to a different school, where everything was about giving speeches, I became more different from how I was before. I voluntarily spoke up; my voice was clear when I gave speeches; my eyes were toward my classmates; I made so many friends that I even talked to them more than I did to my parents. I laughed so hard that some people even stared at me. But, I did not care because I was not in the stuffy balloon anymore.

If I stayed in Korea until now, I could’ve not learned the most valuable lessons in my life. Being cast into the foreign land was probably not the best part of my life before, but now, it’s one of my favorite adventures. It was only when I walked out of my home I realized there was a different world. I believe in taking a risk and enjoying it.

Written by:

Sophie Lee, student at Oregon Episcopal School (OES), OR, USA

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* From the left Sophie Lee, author, and two of her friends.

Child Marriage in Afghanistan

Aamozgar01 — Sun, 02 Oct 2011 02:49:16 +0000

If the government of Afghanistan does not stop the practice of child marriage, most mothers will lose their children besides their own lives in Afghanistan as a result of under age marriage. Indeed, getting married under the age of eighteen or sixteen is not legal according to any law around world because it is internationally accepted that at least the couples should be sixteen. Although according to the Afghan Civil Law the minimum age of marriage for male is 18 and female 16, according to reports of Medica Mondiale and UNICEF, 57 per cent of Afghan females are married under the age sixteen without their consent because of their parent’s financial problems. Moreover, Getting married under 16 sixteen will result several serious health problems for mothers that cause them not to develop properly, neither physically nor psychologically (Earily Marriage in Afghanistan). For instance, a woman living in Qala-e-Bakhtiar of Kabul with her six children has said to Medica Mondial that she was only 15 when she was married against her will. She hates the noise of her children because of having psychological problems. (W.Mukhatari , pg 6). The marriage of children by force is against human rights. Children know nothing about their sexual relationship with their life partners, because they are still child and their parents should take care of them. Therefore, to save the Afghan female children from being exchanged for an amount of money to solve a family s financial problems, Afghanistan government should educate and campaign about consequences of child marriage, increase employment opportunities for parents, and enforce the law by making the marriage registration legal.

In spite of understanding the childhood condition of children, most of the Afghan parents marry their daughters because financial problems they are facing. Poverty is a challenge, which changes the lives of children besides the culture of early child marriage. According to the report by Millennium Development Goals for Afghanistan, the average income of per member of family is 200$ a year and less than one dollar a day. So, they are considered below the poverty line (Earily Marriage in Afghanistan). Thus, to get out of the financial crises the marriage of their daughters before their legal ages such 16 or 18 would be considered for some families the only option for the parents to protect their family honor, pay their debts and take a little amount of money in exchange for their.

First of all, one of the reasons of child marriage is to receive an exorbitant amount of money, which is called Toyana (wedding expenses) in Dari. The payment that parents receive from the groom family is not less than 300,000 Afs. and is not meant to be the wedding expenses, but the price of their child daughter. In a report about the child marriages in Afghanistan by the Women and Children Legal Research Foundation (WCLRF) shows that most of the interviewees have said that the only reason they were married in their childhoods was to receive Toyana from the groom’s family (Earily Marriage in Afghanistan).

Secondly, the other factor that makes the poor families marry their daughters under the age sixteen, often times in rural areas, is to exchange women for women which is called Badal. The practice of this type of marriage is very common among the afghan people. This kind of marriage saves a huge expense of both sides because of exchanging their child daughters from a family to another family to satisfy both sides. The wedding party of such kind of marriage is often celebrated at one time to avoid spending an large amount of money. Indeed, it is the little young female who is devoted for her brother and is victimized for a little amount of money.

Third, debt is another function that the females are exchanged for under the age sixteen in Afghanistan. When a family is unable to pay its debt within limited time that agreed, then the family is supposed to pay a huge amount that satisfy the lender, such as building, farming land, in some cases even a daughter otherwise the family is put in jail. So, the only remaining option for the family to protect its ancestors property would be to sacrifice a daughter as a form of repayment for debt. It does not matter whether the child daughter is 9 or 18 years. As an explicit example, Shahs Family had to marry their 9 year old daughter Khalida two years ago. Shah had received almost 2000$ from a drug trader to grow opium in his land, but the government crop-eradication team destroyed his poppy field and put the Shah family in debt. So, he had to give his 9 years daughter to drug trader because nothing was left in his life. (Clifford)

Forth, the traditional custom of Afghan people is victimizing the child females in most of the rural areas. One of the reasons of child marriage in Afghanistan is Baad, which is a traditional way of having the child females to marry one of males from the family of enemy and forcing her to accept him as her husband in compensation for the crime that her father or brother has committed against the enemy family, and to stop the enmity between two families. For instance, Aisha, an Afghan female whose nose and ears were cut by her Al-Qaeda husband in Oruzgan province, was just 8 years old when she was given as a Baad to her husband family 10 years ago (Shaming her in-laws costs ). Because her father had killed a member of her husband family, so he had to give his daughter to compensate his crime and to avoid being imprisoned or being killed by his enemy. Unfortunately, when the child female goes to her husband house in Baad marriage she is not going to her in-laws house as a bride but as a slave.

Consequently, the child marriage has several negative impacts on the health of both, mothers and babies. The female children wh

o are married under the age of 16 0r 18 would not be prepared for pregnancies and child birth. A statistic of child marriage by Women and Children Legal Research Foundation (WCLRF) shows that 28.7% mothers have physiological and psychological problems, 34.1% have physically weak children, 8.9% have handicapped and disabled children, 1.6% have children with different types of diseases and disorders, and 40.4% of these women have suffered from gynecological disease (Earily Marriage in Afghanistan).In addition, the child marriage would result to take the life of the mothers along with losing the babies. Most of the mothers who are dying at the age of 18-19 are because of their early pregnancies, and the chance of survival for the babies would be forty per cent comparing to the mothers who married in their proper ages (Sadik).

Furthermore, child marriage would result the child brides to be abused by their in-laws family. Most of the child females face various violations after they get married, such as no right to choose, no right to go somewhere without the permission of her husband . When the violation increase the child bride is going to be isolated from the families and relatives. Thus, the only options that remains for the child bride is to suicide or escape from home. The interview of female prisoners by the Medica Mendials legal staff shows that 60% of prisoners were the escapees from husbands houses who were married under the age sixteen. Most of the prisoners have said that they were being abused or even being threaten to dead by their in-laws families (W.Mukhatari , pg 9) .

To come out of the child marriage problem and save little young girls in Afghanistan, education and awareness of public are the main keys to prevent from child marriage. The government should provide community education programs to inform the public about negative consequences of child marriage. Such programs can be implemented easily by Ministry of Women Affairs, which can easily teach the women of an area without any problem, or in other way, the government should pay the clergymen of mosques to advice the parents on their tribunes. These are the only sources that families can trust on. Moreover, the government should implement public awareness campaigns by international organizations and by holding Shoras and Jirgas with the elders of rural areas to talk about the negative impacts of child marriage (Earily Marriage in Afghanistan).

The government of Afghanistan should enforce the law to prevent child marriages. For instance, keeping the marriage registration regularly by the government agencies and receiving the evidence and acquiescence of both sides could be a possible way to reduce the child marriage. For example, in parts of Indonesia, registration of marriage is dependent on evidence that the marriage is not forced on couples (Sadik). The parents who marry their daughters in their childhood under the age 16 should punished and persecuted seriously by the government as governments of Norway and Kyrgyzstan did. They both have set the minimum age of the girls 17 and the punishment of those who marry the females earlier than the age 17 would be jailed for 2 to 6 years.

Weak Economy is another factor, which causes most child marriages in Afghanistan. The government should try to develop the economic situation in rural areas where women have cannot earn money for themselves. For example, the project of Micro finance Investment Support Facility for Afghanistan, which is donated by the World Bank and is implemented by the Rural Rehabilitation and Development Ministry, should be accessible for all women the Afghanistan. In fact, lending a little amount of money to women can be the start of their business to provide their own necessities. For example Saima Mohammad who was about to be divorced by her husband because of having only a daughter and no son. Her husband had borrowed 3,000$, and he was not able to pay it back. So, Saima went to Pakistani micro finance organization called Kashf Foundation, took out only 65$ as loan and bought her 65$ bead and clothes to make embroidery from them and sell them to market in Lahor. She has everything now, and even her husband is working with her (Knistaff).

The government should be serious in taking important steps against child marriages in Afghanistan, because child marriage is dangerous for the health of both, mothers and their babies. People should be informed; the parents who force their child daughters to marry and those who marry females under the age sixteen should be punished. Most importantly, the economic situation of people should be developed to prevent them to not marry their children under the age sixteen in exchange for an amount of money. So, the Afghan government needs to increase peoples’ awareness about the outcome of early marriage, make employment opportunities and persecute those who marry their children before the age sixteen.

Written by: Zabiullah Zabi

Work Cited

Clifford, Drug Fuels Forced Marriages in Afghanistan , Cassandra Clifford, 8 May, 2008, Web, 12 October, 2010

Early Marriage in Afghanistan, Women and Children Legal Research Foundation (WCLRF), 2008, 23 October, 2010, 7-21 print

Knistaff, Nick, Half the Sky , Knistaff, Chapter 11, Microcredit , pg 284-310, Sep, 2010

Sadik, Early Marriage Child Spouses , Dr. Nafis Sadik, UNFPA, March 2007, 18 October, 2010, pg 11-15 print

Shaming her-laws costs 19 years old her nose, ears, UNIFEM Organization, unifem.org, 2010, 18 October, 2010

W.Mukhtari, S. Bahgam, Study on Child Marriage in Afghanistan , W.Mukhtari, Media

Mandial, May 2004, 18 October, 2010, 2-18 print

Image Source: http://www.demotix.com/news/17489/child-trafficking

The Role of Women in Afghanistan

Aamozgar01 — Fri, 09 Sep 2011 01:28:54 +0000

In Afghanistan there is a debate on the role of women in the society. Some Afghans think that women should take part in the society while others argue against this idea. After the Taliban regime it became normal for women to work outside the house particularly in Kabul city. Still there are many opposing ideas on women working outside the house. Due to religious and cultural misperceptions some traditionalist Afghans believe that women are supposed to stay at home to do the house chores and raise their children. These conservatives think that a woman working outside is against Islamic principles. I believe that raising children and doing the house chores are important tasks for women. I do not, however, think that women should be isolated from the rest of the society. I think that it is not only women’s but also men’s responsibility to do the house chores and take care of their children. It is women’s undeniable right to take part in the society. Also some women have financial hardships that make them work outside the house. Above all women need to be educated in the society just like men.

In Afghanistan a number of people think that working and studying outside the house is not good for women. It is argued that women who go out to work or study misuse their freedom and commit prostitution, something that stands in direct opposition to both Islamic belief and Afghan culture. For instance, some women put on so much make up and wear un-Islamic clothing that attracts men, some of whom use this opportunity t

o harass these women. In the long run these behaviors will cause to spread the prohibited deed, prostitution, in the country. It is also said that women who work outside the house cannot raise healthy kids because these women end up spending a lot of time and energy working or studying outside the house, which leaves them with little time to share their maternal love with their kids. This negatively affects their kids.

However, I think these arguments are not completely true. First of all an educated woman does not do what harms her. This undoubtedly refutes the argument that women wear fewer clothing and a lot of make up causing prostitution in the country. Also an unaware woman’s siblings can advise her not to wear what causes uneducated men to harass her. Women working outside or studying is not something new. Islam has granted rights to women 1,400 years ago. For women working outside their homes, the best example is that of our Prophet Muhammad’s wife, Bebe Khadija. Bebe Khadija was a businesswoman; she used to travel to the cities of Arabia to trade. Women are, therefore, not forbidden in Islam to go out in the community for a job. Unless women’s guardians and husbands are uncomfortable and women’s clothing, acting, and talking are not according to Islamic principles, they can visit their relatives and female friends. If necessary their Mahram (a close male relative) can accompany them. (www.themuslimwoman.com). Aside from Islam, women’s rights to work and study is clear in the bill of women’s rights; in the convention to eliminate all forms of discrimination against women (CEDAW), which is approved by the UN General Assembly in 1979 and all countries of the world have confirmed except the United States of America. (uk.oneworld.net). Furthermore, it is every individual

Guinness Book of World Records (2010)

Aamozgar01 — Sat, 20 Aug 2011 09:19:32 +0000

This entertaining and informative book contains world's records (i.e World's biggest airplane). It has pictures and description of the records around the world.

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Gandhi; An Autobiography (The Story of My Experiments with Truth)

Aamozgar01 — Sun, 14 Aug 2011 10:13:26 +0000

This book is the autobiography of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the pre-eminent political and ideological leader during Indian independence movement. This book covers his life from childhood until the 1920's. This book is known as one of 100 Most Important Spiritual Books of the 20th Century.

If you have not yet read this book, you are highly encouraged
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GRE( Graduate Record Exam) General Guide

Aamozgar01 — Sun, 14 Aug 2011 09:57:58 +0000

GRE stands for the Graduate Record Exam. This test is designed by ETS (Educational Testing Service) to evaluate students' proficiencies in analytical thinking, writing, and reasoning. Those intending to pursue a post graduate degree ( Master's and Ph.D) are supposed to take GRE.

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The Accidental Billionaires

Aamozgar01 — Sun, 14 Aug 2011 09:38:43 +0000

The Accidental Billionaires is a book based on the true story behind the founding of Facebook. This book was published in 2009 by Ben Mezrich.

The film The Social Network is based on this book.

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The Post American World

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The Post American World is a non fiction book written by the Indian American journalist Fareed Zakaria. Fareed Zakaria is a talented journalist and author, who has received his B.A from Yale university and his Ph.D in Political Science from Harvard University. His book, The Post American World, focuses upon the diminishing economic and soft power of the United States and argues how new and emerging powers such as China and India are challenging American dominance in the world.

Following is an excerpt about this book from the article A Challenge for the U.S.; Sun Rising on the East from the New York Times.

In his new book, “The Post-American World,” Mr. Zakaria writes that America remains a politico-military superpower, but “in
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The White Tiger

Aamozgar01 — Sat, 13 Aug 2011 09:12:27 +0000

The White Tiger is a novel written by the Indian author Aravind Adiga. This book, published in 2008, won the Man Book Prize of the year. India's economic growth has struck many nations with surprise. However, this country is one of the nations where the distribution of wealth is very unequal. This book through the narration of its protagonist Balram Halwai describes India's economic growth that stands in a huge contrast to the deep poverty that is prevalent in India today.

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TOEFL

Aamozgar01 — Sun, 07 Aug 2011 12:44:14 +0000

TOEFL stands for the “Test of English as Foreign Language.” Institutions such as high schools, colleges and universities where the language of instruction is English primarily use TOEFL to evaluate non-native English speakers’ reading, listening, writing and speaking abilities in North American English.

Each year nearly one million individuals take TOEFL to demonstrate their proficiency in English. Over 8,000 in
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Creating A World Without Poverty; social business and the future of capitalism.

Aamozgar01 — Sun, 07 Aug 2011 11:10:20 +0000

Economist Muhammad Yunus is the winner of the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize and the founder of the highly successful Grameem Bank, which specializes in making loans to the poor. Creating a World Without Poverty outlines a new business model that utilizes the power of free markets to truly unleash human potential.

In this excellent work of popular economics, he tells the story of how he came to the idea and the impressive results it has generated.

Read the following book review by The Electronic Journal of Sustainable Development for further insight about the book:

“How do you solve the problem of poverty in this modern day and age? That is the question the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize laureate Muhammad Yunus sets out to answer in Creating a World without Poverty (2007). He finds a possible solution in a concept termed “social business,” which is a way of running
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TOEFL

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A Thousand Splendid Suns

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A thousand Splendid Suns is a 2007 novel by Afghan author Khaled Husseinie, his second, following his bestselling debut, The Kite Runner. It focuses on the tumultuous lives of two Afghan women and how their lives cross each other, spanning from 1960 to 2003.

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The Impact of Urbanization Upon the Quality of Housing in Kabul City

Aamozgar01 — Tue, 02 Aug 2011 08:19:50 +0000

The Picture above shows informal settlement built on a steep slope in Qala-e-Zaman Khan, Kabul, Afghanistan.

Abstract 

The  aim  of  this  research  essay  is  to  explore  how  rapid  population  growth  has  impacted  upon  the  quality  of  housing  in  Kabul  City.

With  the  help  of  Fazalali  Amiry,  Child  Sponsorship  Manager  at  Actionaid, this study was conducted through a survey  involving  three neighborhoods in Kabul. First, this  research  essay  briefly  looks  at  the  significance  of  the  issue  and  explains  the three  main  causes  of  rapid  population  growth. Then  the  importance  of  Kabul  city  to its  geographical  surroundings  is  outlined. It also briefly  explores  Kabul’s historical  background. This research further  investigates  many  of  the  possible  reasons  why  Kabul  has  grown  so  rapidly through  evaluating  the  results  of a  questionnaire  from  Kabul  city  residents  dwelling  in  high  and  poor  quality  housings,  and  slums.  I  used  Google  Earth  and  the photos I took  during  my  interviews  with  these  residences  to  give  a  clear  picture  of  the  types  of houses  Kabulis  are  living  in.

From  the  evaluation  of  both  primary  and  secondary  data  it  is  concluded  that  the  rapid  population growth has hugely impacted  the  quality  of  housing  as  it  caused  a  massive  increase  in  the  construction  of  all  kinds  of  informal  settlements. The  majority  of  the  houses are 
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unregulated  and  built  far  from  city  center  or  on  steep  mountainous  slopes.  Most of these  houses  are  generally  built  with  stone  in foundation,  mud bricks  and  wood  on  the  roof  lacking  basic  necessities  such  as  proper  sewage  and  drainage  systems,  electricity  and  clean  water  supply.  This  has  also  increased  the  vulnerability  of  houses  against  natural  disasters  such  as  flood  and  earthquakes.

Table of Contents

1. Introduction

1.1 Reasons for Rapid Growth

1.2 Importance of the Chosen Topic

1.3 Geographical Location of Kabul City

2. Method

2.1 The Three types of housing

2.2 Qualitative Analysis

2.3 Questionnaires

2.4 Secondary Data

3. Data Presentation; Introduction to the Three Areas

3.1 Taimany: Regulated Housing

3.2 Qala-e-Mosa: Unregulated Housing

3.3 Dehkhudaidad: Slums

4. Facilities Available at the Three Areas

4.1 Regulated Housing

4.2 Unregulated Housing

4.3 Slums

4.4 Secondary Data

5. Analysis

6. Conclusion

7. References

8. Acknowledgments

1.   Introduction

This research looks at the urban growth of Kabul City and how this rapid growth has impacted on the provision and quality of housing in different areas of Kabul City.

[To read the entire research paper, please click on the PDF file below]

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Tuesdays with Morrie

Aamozgar01 — Mon, 01 Aug 2011 13:04:41 +0000

This novel tells the true story of retired sociology professor Morrie Schwartz and his relationship with his students. On his graduation, Mitch Albom, the narrator, tells his favorite professor, Morrie Schwartz, that he will keep in touch. However, Mitch doesn’t contact his professor until one night when he sees Morrie being interviewed on T.V..

It turns out that Morrie has developed ALS, a terminal disease, and is in a wheelchair. Mitch begins to visit his professor and soon rea
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Cause & Effect Essay Sample; Air Pollution in Kabul City

Aamozgar01 — Mon, 01 Aug 2011 05:57:28 +0000

Over the past few decades, air pollution has become a global problem. Air pollution causes dangerous health problems such as asthma and malaria. Life in an air-polluted city like Kabul is both challenging and dangerous. It is challenging because one has to constantly deal with a variety of diseases caused by air pollution. It is dangerous due to the lack of quality health services. In recent years air pollution has been constantly increasing in Kabul because of the dirt roads, car fume, and open sewage systems.

The first major cause of air pollution in Kabul is the dirt roads. Cars blow the road dust in the air and create a dusty environment. Though some roads are asphalted in Kabul, they are not in a good condition. Most asphalted roads are built by nongovernmental organizations that use substandard and low quality asphalt for the construction of roads. Such low quality roads that do not last long add to the increase in pollution.

Car fume, produced by low quality gas, is another significant cause of air pollution in Kabul. It is clear that the more cars enter Kabul city the more polluted it becomes. In the past few years the number of cars has substantially increased in Kabul, which in return has contributed to air pollution. Additionally t
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he usage of low quality fuel has also played an important role in polluting the city. Since quality fuel costs a lot to the poor residents of Kabul, most drivers use low quality fuel that leads to excessive air pollution.

The final cause of air pollution in Kabul is the open sewage system. Because of the three decades of war in Afghanistan, this country has remained backwards from so many aspects. Even after the war, Afghanistan has not been reconstructed well and it lacks proper canalization system. Rainwater and wastewater accumulates everywhere in the city. From these waters bacteria and microbes spread in the air that results in further pollution.

The reasons that lead Kabul to one of the polluted cities are the dirt roads, car fume, and the open sewage system. These factors hugely affect Kabul’s atmosphere. I suggest that the municipality of Kabul city asphalt the dirt roads, have a good supervision on the construction of roads by NGOs, put a limit on the number of cars in Kabul, make sure all vehicles use high quality fuel, and build world standard canalization system in the city. These measures can, to a certain degree, reduce the pollution in Kabul.

Written by:

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Process & Analysis Essay Sample; Getting a Driver’s License in Afghanistan

Aamozgar01 — Mon, 01 Aug 2011 05:38:26 +0000

The number of drivers in Afghanistan has been constantly increasing during the past few years and due to strict traffic regulations it is more necessary than ever for a driver to have a driver’s license. To get a local driver’s license people need to pursue specific procedures that differ from country to country. Getting a driver’s license in Afghanistan requires these steps: Registering for a driving course, applying for a driving license in the Traffic Department, and taking the theoretical and practical exams.

Getting a driver’s license starts by enrolling yourself in a driving course. The private course will roughly cost you 3,500 Afs., and lasts a short period of time. They are found almost everywhere in Afghanistan. The practical and theoretical driving lessons last no longer than three months maximum. During the course an instructor helps you learn how to drive. After completing the course, you will have a better understanding of traffic regulations, and sings. You will also be able to control and drive the care well. These lessons will help you pass the driving test successfully.

Once you have completed the course, your next step is to apply for the license. You need to go to the Traffic Department and write a petition for your driver’s license application form. Make sure you have your Afghan ID card, Tazkirate, with you when you apply for your driver’s license. Next you will be given a form that you have to fill in. Carefully fill in the form and attach the copy of your ID card with it. When you submit your form, an official will take your photo for it is needed in your driver’s license.

Once your form is submitted, you are ready for the next step: The theoretical exam. For success in this exam, you need to attend a special course, which usually lasts one hour. This course will give you extra
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guidance on traffic signals. These courses are free of charge provided by the Traffic Department twice a day. You only have to buy a traffic guidance book for 50 Afs. Once you have attended the course, your name will be automatically on the list for the exam. The examiner will read off the list of candidates for the theoretical exam twice a week. If you are present and ready, the examiner will take you to an empty classroom where you will be asked several questions about the traffic regulations. If you pass the theoretically exam successfully, the examiner will sign your form, and you will be ready for the practical exam.

The last step for getting a driver’s license is the practical exam. The practical exam has two stages. The first stage is driving the car between white lines marked on the road, which takes place inside the Traffic Department. In this stage the car is not supposed to touch the lines. The second stage takes place on the streets. In this stage the examiner tests your confidence and knowledge of driving in crowded areas. As you drive the car, the examiner tests your skills and knowledge of driving. For instance, the examiner may order you to stop the car suddenly in the middle of the street, something you are not supposed to do. After successfully passing the exam, the examiner will approve the issue of your driver’s license.

Congratulation you made it! You started from enrolling into a driving course, went through the application process, handled the tricky questions of the examiner and finally wound up with your driver’s license. During the process, it is recommended that you be very wise by filling in your form correctly, being well prepared for the exams, and being mindful of the tricky questions of the examiner.

Written by:

Abdul Qadir Ahmadi, student at the American University of Afghanistan
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Division & Classification Essay Sample; NGOs in Afghanistan

Aamozgar01 — Mon, 01 Aug 2011 05:36:50 +0000

Since the year 2001 the number of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) has notably increased in Afghanistan. NGOs are non-for-profit and non-governmental institutions that implement a number of welfare programs and projects through the financial aid of international donors. Because Afghanistan has suffered from war for many decades, it has poor infrastructure, economy and governance. In order to tackle the problems in Afghanistan, Afghans and foreigners have established NGOs in Afghanistan to improve the quality of life for the Afghan people. Although their services differ substantially from one another, NGOs in Afghanistan could be classified into three main categories based on their missions: NGOs that provide and support educational services, NGOs that provide health care services and NGOs that work towards reviving the Afghan culture and heritage.

The first category of NGOs provides educational facilities to the Afghan people. These organizations carry out their mission in two ways: first, they facilitate the access to education. For instance, Afghanistan Libre, a French Afghan NGO, builds schools in the rural areas for those who do not have immediate access to education. Second, they train professional schoolteachers. For example Afkhand, an Afghan NGO, trains teachers in a variety of subjects and sends them to schools that suffer from the lack of teachers.

Apart from NGOs that provide educational facilities, there are other NGOs that facilitate health care services to the public. The work of these organizations has also two procedures. The first procedure
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is the fulfillment of needs such as medication and professional doctors from the World Health Organization (WHO) and other international health organizations. The second procedure is reaching out to the people most in need. For example, in Panjsher province there are fewer government health care centers. NGOs distribute vaccinations and other first aid needs through their staff to the public.

The last category of NGOs works to revive the Afghan culture and heritage. These NGOs focus on two main points. One is keeping the heritage of Afghanistan alive. For instance, The Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC) has rebuilt Bagh-e-Babor and has saved it from becoming a completely ruined park. The other purpose of these NGOs is to revive the old and classic music of Afghanistan. AKTC has also done some significant work bringing professional Afghan music instructors from outside to teach thde Afghan youth the classic music of Afghanistan.

In conclusion, Non-Governmental Organizations in Afghanistan play an important role in improving the quality of life for the Afghans. The services that the NGOs provide cover all three important categories that Afghans need: education, health and culture. They contribute to the development of education, provide emergency and routine health care services, and work towards retaining the Afghan culture. The Afghan government should work in close collaboration with these organizations in order to ease the implementation of the projects undertaken by these NGOs.

Written by:

Abdul Qadir Ahmadi, student at the American University of Afghanistan
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Compare & Contrast Sample Essay; Educational System in Afghanistan and in the West

Aamozgar01 — Mon, 01 Aug 2011 05:31:17 +0000

Educational system, which is the learning curriculum of a country, has notably developed in the West because the West has valued education and has applied different effective ways of learning and teaching. The educational system in Afghanistan, on the other hand, has stayed the same as it was many years ago. The system of education is backward in Afghanistan because over the past few decades of war education, among many other sectors, has been hugely affected. There are several other contrasts between Afghan and Western educational systems such as the promotion of different learning and teaching styles, and the provision of facilities for schools in the West.

The first contrast between Afghan and Western educational system is the promotion of different learning styles. For example, in the West students learn their lessons through experimentation. Experimentation is the visual and practical teaching/proof of a scientific hypothesis. Students in the West also learn through experience. By experience I mean the application of a lesson in daily life. On the other hand, in Afghanistan these methods barely exist. Afghan students do not know about experimentation methods. They learn by memorizing their subjects. Memorization is the method of copying materials in mind the same as it is in the textbook. Afghan students memorize to pass the tests and exams. This method helps the students for a short period of time but it does not helpful them in the long run. They will not develop critical thinking abilities.

Another contrast between Afghan and Western educational system is the existence of different teaching methods. For i
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nstance, in the West teachers use student-centric methods. Student-centric method is the method in which teachers act as instructors; teachers only guide the students and it is the students who take responsibility for their own studies. This method helps students to build self-confidence. It also enables them to learn how to find reliable and good information? Conversely the teachers in Afghanistan use lecture-based teaching method. Through this method students listen to the teachers’ long lectures. Students feel mostly irresponsible for doing research and in most cases students do not ask questions. This method brings about irresponsible, unconfident, and shy students.

The last difference between Afghan and Western educational systems is the level of facilities available in schools. In the West, students have access to the most updated information through Internet and through the yearly-renewed version of books. However, in Afghanistan students do not have access to good and updated books. Afghan students read the books that their grand fathers have read four decades ago. So afghan students are less updated if they are at all.

In conclusion, there are many contrasts between Afghan and Western educational systems in terms of the differences of learning, and teaching methods, and the facilities available for schools. If the Afghan government takes the investment on education seriously, we might be talking about the similarities of these two educational systems rather than their differences.

Written By:

Abdul Qadir Ahmadi, student at the American University of Afghanistan

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Argumentative Essay Sample

Aamozgar01 — Mon, 01 Aug 2011 05:22:59 +0000

The Role of Women in Afghanistan

In Afghanistan there is a debate on the role of women in the society. Some Afghans think that women should take part in the society while others argue against this idea. After the Taliban regime it became normal for women to work outside the house particularly in Kabul city. Still there are many opposing ideas on women working outside the house. Due to religious and cultural misperceptions some traditionalist Afghans believe that women are supposed to stay at home to do the house chores and raise their children. These conservatives think that a woman working outside is against Islamic principles. I believe that raising children and doing the house chores are important tasks for women. I do not, however, think that women should be isolated from the rest of the society. I think that it is not only women’s but also men’s responsibility to do the house chores and take care of their children. It is women’s undeniable right to take part in the society. Also some women have financial hardships that make them work outside the house. Above all women need to be educated in the society just like men.

In Afghanistan a number of people think that working and studying outside the house is not good for women. It is argued that women who go out to work or study misuse their freedom and commit prostitution, something that stands in direct opposition to both Islamic belief and Afghan culture. For instance, some women put on so much make up and wear un-Islamic clothing that attracts men, some of whom use this opportunity to harass these women. In the long run these behaviors will cause to spread the prohibited deed, prostitution, in the country. It is also said that women who work outside the house cannot raise healthy kids because these women end up spending a lot of time and energy working or studying outside the house, which leaves them with little time to share their maternal love with their kids. This negatively affects their kids.

However, I think these arguments are not completely true. First of all an educated woman does not do what harms her. This undoubtedly refutes the argument that women wear fewer clothing and a lot of make up causing prostitution in the country. Also an unaware woman’s siblings can advise her not to wear what causes uneducated men to harass her. Women working outside or studying is not something new. Islam has granted rights to women 1,400 years ago. For women working outside their homes, the best example is that of our Prophet Muhammad’s wife, Bebe Khadija. Bebe Khadija was a businesswoman; she used to travel to the cities of Arabia to trade. Women are, therefore, not forbidden in Islam to go out in the community for a job. Unless women’s guardians and husbands are uncomfortable and women’s clothing, acting, and talking are not according to Islamic principles, they can visit their relatives and female friends. If necessary their Mahram (a close male relative) can accompany them. (www.themuslimwoman.com). Aside from Islam, women’s rights to work and study is clear in the bill of women’s rights; in the convention to eliminate all forms of discrimination against women (CEDAW), which is approved by the UN General Assembly in 1979 and all countries of the world have confirmed except the Unit
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ed States of America. (uk.oneworld.net). Furthermore, it is every individual’s right to go out to work and seek education as it is declared in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. According to the arguments provided above, it is clear that both Islam and Human Rights grant women the rights to work and study.

I agree that in Afghanistan some women who go out use make up and wear attractive cloths, but I think because of some women we should not deprive all women of Afghanistan from going outside to work and study. Most Afghan families have economic problems, something that makes these women to work. The three decades of war in Afghanistan have had notable effects on Afghan families. Lots of women from these families have lost their husbands. Some women’s male guardians became disabled during the war. All these problems leave Afghan women with no option except for working outside the house to support their families. For example, I was nine when my father was martyred in the war. After that my mother became the only supporter of our family working outside the house to raise us. Had she not have the chance to work outside, my siblings and I would have starved. Studying in the best university of Afghanistan would have been just a dream for me; not a reality. What I am today is all because of my mother.

A woman works whether it is outside or inside the house. However, education is more important for both men and women. The importance of education for both men and women is emphasized many times in Islam. The first word that Allah said to the Prophet Muhammad Sallallah Aleyehi Wasallam (SAW) was the word “Read”. Also our Prophet Muhammad (SAW) said: “To seek knowledge is obligatory on every Muslim male and female.” It is more significant for women to get education rather than men as the previous leader of Ismaili Muslim Sultan Muhammad Shah said: “If you have two kids a son and a daughter. Educate the daughter first because by educating a daughter you educate a family.” Since in Afghanistan we do not have access to modern educational facilities such as online courses, Afghan women have to go outside for education. Our Prophet Muhammad (SAW) has also said: “Seek knowledge even if you have to go to China.” Here he mentioned China because from Arabia to China is a long distance. So it is our religious responsibility to get an education. It is clear that one who gets a good education will be living a comfortable life.

In conclusion, women working and studying outside will not increase prostitution in the society. The way women behave outside can be prevented if women are educated and if their relatives advise them. Work is work, whether we do it outside or inside the house. Furthermore, it is every Afghan woman’s rights, as a Muslim and as a human being, to work outside and study. Beside their rights, many Afghan women have financial problems, which make them to work. So, I strongly oppose those who argue that women should stay at home for they are undermining women’s rights, preventing them from earning money and lastly endangering their education. Let’s make sure that every Afghan woman gets her rights and receives equal treatment as men. Let’s think about the betterment and improvement of our country Afghanistan.

Written by:

Abdul Qadir Ahmadi, student at the American University of Afghanistan

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TOEFL

administrator — Sun, 17 Jul 2011 11:47:46 +0000

TOEFL stands for the “Test of English as Foreign Language.” Institutions such as high schools, colleges and universities where the language of instructions is English primarily use TOEFL to evaluate non-native English speakers’ reading, listening, writing and speaking abilities in North American English.

Each year nearly one million individuals take TOEFL to demonstrate their proficiency in English. Over 8,000 institutions from 130 countries accept TOEFL scores. According to the ETS, “the test [TOEFl] is composed of 100% academic questions and tasks, many universities consider it the most appropriate test to use when making admissions decisions.” Aside from educational institutions, immigration agencies, scholarship programs, and government agencies also use TOEFl scores to evaluate individuals’ English abilities. TOEFL is, therefore, one of the most widely known and respected tests in the world.

TOEFl comes in the following two formats:

1)      iBT (Internet based test)

2)      PBT (Paper based test)

Each of these two versions consists of four sections:

iBT Version

No

Section

Description

Time

1

Reading

3-5 passages, each followed by 10-12 questions

60-100 minutes

2

Listening

a. 4-6 lectures each followed by 6 questions

b. 2-3 conversations each followed by 5                                  questions

60-90 minutes

3

Speaking

4 tasks: 2 independent and 2 integrated

20 minutes

4

Writing

2 tasks: 1 independent and 1 integrated

50 minutes

Note: In an integrated task, you will combine a couple of tasks (i.e. listening to a lecture and reading a short passage) about the same subject to answer a question.

PBT Version

No

Section

Description

Time

1

Listening Comprehension

50 Questions based on a mix of lectures and conversations

30-40 minutes

2

Structure and Written Expression

40 Questions on grammar

25 minutes

3

Reading Comprehension

50 Questions based on short and long passages

55 minutes

4

Writing

1 essay question usually about a general topic

30 minutes

Source: www.ets.org

TOEFL test centers in Afghanistan

TOEFl is administered in Afghanistan by ETS (Education Testing Service) with the following specifics:

No

City

Code

Test Format

Fees
                     Test Dates

1

Kabul

H001

PBT

160 USD

Sat., Aug 13, 2011

Sat., Oct 15, 2011

Sat., Nov 12, 2011

Sat., Jan 14, 2012

Fri., Mar 09, 2012

Sat., May 05, 201

2

Kabul

-

iBT

-

No Dates Currently Available

3

Herat

H003

PBT

160 USD

Sat., Aug 13, 2011

Sat., Oct 15, 2011

Sat., Jan 14, 2012

Sat., May 05, 2012

TOEFL Test Center Address in Kabul:

University of Nebraska Omaha Education Press (UNO)

Puli Charkhi Area

Jalalabad main Road, Paktia Kot

One block after Hello Trust Compound

Kabul Afghanistan

Phone: 0799-713-180

0700-279-659

Email: unomahakabul@yahoo.com

For further information about TOEFL test in and outside Afghanistan, please visit:

http://www.ets.org/toefl/

TOEFL Test prep. Websites:

http://www.examenglish.com/TOEFL/index.php

Source: www.ets.org

Section I

Reading Comprehension

Types of Reading Comprehension Questions on the TOEFL Exam

The reading comprehension section of the TOEFL exam usually asks about the following kinds of information:

Main Idea

Vocabulary

Specific Fact/Detail

Exceptions

Location of Information

Inferences

References

Paraphrased Sentences (computer-based test only)

1.      Main Idea

This type of question usually occurs right after a passage ends. It asks you about the main idea of an entire passage or a specific paragraph. Some sample questions are:

a)      What is the passage mainly about?

b)      What is the author’s main purpose in this passage?

c)      Which of the following four sentences can best describe the main idea of this passage?

d)     Which of the following four sentences can best summarize the information in this passage?

2.      Vocabulary

This type of question asks you to determine the meaning of a word in a specific line and paragraph in a passage. Some sample questions are:

a)      The word acoustic in line 32, paragraph 4 is closes in meaning to?

b)      The word acoustic in line 12, paragraph 2 could best be replaced by?

c)      The word acoustic most likely means?

3.      Specific Information or Detail

This kind of question is about specific details in a passage or paragraph. The reading section questions usually occur in a chronological order, so when a detail related question is the first or second among the list 12 questions about a passage, it is asking about the information in the first or second paragraph of the passage. Questions usually come in the following forms:

a)      What causes a tornado?

b)      Where did the last strongest tornado in the human history take place?

c)      Why were many scholars misled about the possible causes of a tornado?

4.      Exceptions

This type of question asks you to show the information that the author did not precisely mention in the passage. Some sample questions are:

a)      Which of the following was NOT mentioned as a possible cause to earthquakes?

b)      All of the following are reasons for stock market crash EXCEPT?

c)      A person with bipolar disorder would NOT exhibit which symptom?

5.      Location of Information

This type of question is about identification of specific information given in a passage. You will be asked to locate the given information. Questions could take the following forms:

a)      Where in the passage does the author define potential energy?

b)      What paragraph discusses the benefits of investing in government bonds?

c)      Click on the paragraph that discusses the treatment for brain cell damage?

6.      Inferences

This kind of question usually asks you to make a logical conclusion based on the information given. This type of question is prominently used in the listening section of the TOEFL exam.

Sample questions

a)      The author suggests that carnivores are usually found in:

b)      The passage suggest that Latin is not yet a dead language because:

7.      Inferences

This kind of question asks you to determine what a word or phrase refers to in a given passage. These are some sample questions:

a)      The word its in line 26, paragraph 3 refers to?

b)      Look at the word them in paragraph 2 and click on the bolded text that it refers to? (iBT TOEFL only)

8.      Paraphrased Sentences

In this kind of question, you are asked to determine the meaning of a whole sentence or phrase from a passage.

Sample questions:

a)      What does the author mean by: “It is not a trip but a journey.”

b)      Which sentence is closest in meaning to: “ An autocratic regime is unlikely to resist the democratic waves of change that occur in the Middle East today.”

Learn the essential skills and strategies to beat the TOEFL reading section

Reading for Main Ideas

Students usually confuse the main idea with the topic of a passage. The topic of a passage is what the passage is about. The main idea, however, is what the author’s main point of view/thesis about the subject is. The main idea or the thesis of the author usually occurs at the beginning of a passage.

The main idea of a passage is a general claim about the subject of a passage serving as an umbrella that catches all the details provided in the passage. If you are not sure whether something is the main idea or the supporting ideas/details in a passage, ask yourself the following question:

Is the sentence or phrase making a general statement or is it providing specific information about a topic? If it talks about a specific fact about a topic, it cannot be the main idea of a passage.

Besides passages, paragraphs also have main ideas. The main idea of a paragraph is often expressed at the beginning of a paragraph as a topic sentence.

Example

Identify the topic, main idea, and the supporting details of the following introductory paragraph excerpted form a passage:

Many people are afraid of snakes, but most snakes aren’t as dangerous as people think they are. There are more than 2,500 different species of snakes around the world. Only a small percentage of those species is poisonous, and only a few species have venom strong enough to kill a human being. Furthermore, snakes bite only 1,000–2,000 people in the United States each year, and only ten of those bites (that’s less than 1%) result in death. Statistically, many other animals are far more dangerous than snakes. In fact, in this country, more people die from dog bites each year than from snakes.

Topic: snakes

Main idea: “snakes are not as dangerous as people think they are.”

Supporting ideas: Only a small percentage of snakes are poisonous.

1% of snakebites result in death

There are more than 2,500 different species of snakes in the world

Explanation:

The paragraph’s general theme is “snakes”. In other words, the paragraph is about snakes. The main idea is expressed in the first sentence that is as: snakes are not as dangerous as people think they are.” This is the author’s thesis. Specific details follow the main idea. These details are about snakebites, snake venom, snakes’ species etc.

Vocabulary Questions

No matter how fluent and good you are in English, the TOELF exam will test you on words that are hard even for native English speakers. There are three strategies you can follow to figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word.

If you do not know the meaning of a word, try to figure out its meaning by looking at its context. Read the entire sentence in which the word is used to see what it could possibly mean.

After paying close attention to the context of the word, determine whether the word gives a positive or a negative connotation. This allows you to cross out synonyms in the answer choice that stands in contrast to the implication of the word.

Then try to replace the reaming choices with the given word to see which one makes the most sense. Choose the choice that you think can most appropriately replace the given word.

Example

What does the word bogus in this sentence mean?

I am so angry! The autographed picture of Michael Jordan turned out to be bogus. The man who sold it to me had signed it himself!

Bogus most nearly means:

a. fake, false

b. believable

c. interesting

d. expensive

Answer: a: fake or false

Explanation:

From the context of the sentence, it is obvious that bogus gives a negative connotation. Therefore, we can cross out b, and c. Replacing d would not make a good sentence since something would not turn out differently in terms of costs. One asks the cost of something before buying it. So the most appropriate answer is a.

Identifying facts and details

The type of questions that asks you about specific facts or details of a passage take the following three forms:

Specific fact or detail in a passage

Information or fact that is not mentioned in the passage

Identifying the location of the information in the passage

You cannot be expected to remember every single detail or fact that you read in a long passage in a short time nor can you be expected to memorize the information as you read it. You will also not have enough time to carefully and slowly look for the specific fact that you are asked to find in the passage. How can you effectively answer these types of questions?

You can do this by using these two strategies:

Look for key words in the question to know what exactly you should be looking for in the passage.

Use the structure of the passage to determine where you can find the specific detail or fact.

Example

Considering the earlier paragraph about snakes, answer the following question

How many species of snakes are there worldwide?

a. between 1,000–2,000

b. less than 100

c. less than 2,500

d. more than 2,500

Answer: More than 2,500

Explanation: The key words in this question are how many and species. This tells you that you are looking for a number that is related to species. Also you can see the structure of the paragraph, as it first talks about species, then about venom, and then about bites. Therefore, it is easier for you to just skim the passage and find the specific fact.

Recognizing the organizational pattern of a passage

Most passages are organized in the following four patterns:

a)      Chronological Order

When writers use time to talk about something, they write in a chronological order. Authors of historical events, personal experiences, instructions and procedures write chronologically ordered essays. Time expressions such as first, then, when, before, after etc. are used in these essays.

b)      Order of Importance

In this type of essay, authors organize their ideas by rank. They either go from the most important ideas or arguments to the least important ones or vice versa. The use of expressions such as firs and foremost, most importantly, last but not least, etc are prevalently used in these essays.

c)      Cause and Effect

A cause is someone or something that makes something happen. An effect is the change after a cause. Authors talking about a major event may use the cause and effect organizational pattern. For instance, one can talk about the event of September 11^th 2001 using cause and effect organization. What caused this tragic event and what the outcome was?

d)     Comparison and Contrast

When an author compares two similar things is called comparison. An author placing two different things side by side and talking about them is called contrast. For example, an author may compare and contrast the French Revolution with the American Revolution to demonstrate their similarities and differences.

Knowing these four patterns of organization helps you skim and understand the passage more quickly. You can predict what to expect next and where to look for specific information.

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enter”>TOEFL

TOEFL stands for the “Test of English as Foreign Language.” Institutions such as high schools, colleges and universities where the language of instructions is English primarily use TOEFL to evaluate non-native English speakers’ reading, listening, writing and speaking abilities in North American English.

Each year nearly one million individuals take TOEFL to demonstrate their proficiency in English. Over 8,000 institutions from 130 countries accept TOEFL scores. According to the ETS, “the test [TOEFl] is composed of 100% academic questions and tasks, many universities consider it the most appropriate test to use when making admissions decisions.” Aside from educational institutions, immigration agencies, scholarship programs, and government agencies also use TOEFl scores to evaluate individuals’ English abilities. TOEFL is, therefore, one of the most widely known and respected tests in the world.

TOEFl comes in the following two formats:

1)      iBT (Internet based test)

2)      PBT (Paper based test)

Each of these two versions consists of four sections:

iBT Version

No

Section

Description

Time

1

Reading

3-5 passages, each followed by 10-12 questions

60-100 minutes

2

Listening

a. 4-6 lectures each followed by 6 questions

b. 2-3 conversations each followed by 5                                  questions

60-90 minutes

3

Speaking

4 tasks: 2 independent and 2 integrated

20 minutes

4

Writing

2 tasks: 1 independent and 1 integrated

50 minutes

Note: In an integrated task, you will combine a couple of tasks (i.e. listening to a lecture and reading a short passage) about the same subject to answer a question.

PBT Version

No

Section

Description

Time

1

Listening Comprehension

50 Questions based on a mix of lectures and conversations

30-40 minutes

2

Structure and Written Expression

40 Questions on grammar

25 minutes

3

Reading Comprehension

50 Questions based on short and long passages

55 minutes

4

Writing

1 essay question usually about a general topic

30 minutes

Source: www.ets.org

TOEFL test centers in Afghanistan

TOEFl is administered in Afghanistan by ETS (Education Testing Service) with the following specifics:

No

City

Code

Test Format

Fees
                     Test Dates

1

Kabul

H001

PBT

160 USD

Sat., Aug 13, 2011

Sat., Oct 15, 2011

Sat., Nov 12, 2011

Sat., Jan 14, 2012

Fri., Mar 09, 2012

Sat., May 05, 201

2

Kabul

-

iBT

-

No Dates Currently Available

3

Herat

H003

PBT

160 USD

Sat., Aug 13, 2011

Sat., Oct 15, 2011

Sat., Jan 14, 2012

Sat., May 05, 2012

TOEFL Test Center Address in Kabul:

University of Nebraska Omaha Education Press (UNO)

Puli Charkhi Area

Jalalabad main Road, Paktia Kot

One block after Hello Trust Compound

Kabul Afghanistan

Phone: 0799-713-180

0700-279-659

Email: unomahakabul@yahoo.com

For further information about TOEFL test in and outside Afghanistan, please visit:

http://www.ets.org/toefl/

TOEFL Test prep. Websites:

http://www.examenglish.com/TOEFL/index.php

Source: www.ets.org

Section I

Reading Comprehension

Types of Reading Comprehension Questions on the TOEFL Exam

The reading comprehension section of the TOEFL exam usually asks about the following kinds of information:

Main Idea

Vocabulary

Specific Fact/Detail

Exceptions

Location of Information

Inferences

References

Paraphrased Sentences (computer-based test only)

1.      Main Idea

This type of question usually occurs right after a passage ends. It asks you about the main idea of an entire passage or a specific paragraph. Some sample questions are:

a)      What is the passage mainly about?

b)      What is the author’s main purpose in this passage?

c)      Which of the following four sentences can best describe the main idea of this passage?

d)     Which of the following four sentences can best summarize the information in this passage?

2.      Vocabulary

This type of question asks you to determine the meaning of a word in a specific line and paragraph in a passage. Some sample questions are:

a)      The word acoustic in line 32, paragraph 4 is closes in meaning to?

b)      The word acoustic in line 12, paragraph 2 could best be replaced by?

c)      The word acoustic most likely means?

3.      Specific Information or Detail

This kind of question is about specific details in a passage or paragraph. The reading section questions usually occur in a chronological order, so when a detail related question is the first or second among the list 12 questions about a passage, it is asking about the information in the first or second paragraph of the passage. Questions usually come in the following forms:

a)      What causes a tornado?

b)      Where did the last strongest tornado in the human history take place?

c)      Why were many scholars misled about the possible causes of a tornado?

4.      Exceptions

This type of question asks you to show the information that the author did not precisely mention in the passage. Some sample questions are:

a)      Which of the following was NOT mentioned as a possible cause to earthquakes?

b)      All of the following are reasons for stock market crash EXCEPT?

c)      A person with bipolar disorder would NOT exhibit which symptom?

5.      Location of Information

This type of question is about identification of specific information given in a passage. You will be asked to locate the given information. Questions could take the following forms:

a)      Where in the passage does the author define potential energy?

b)      What paragraph discusses the benefits of investing in government bonds?

c)      Click on the paragraph that discusses the treatment for brain cell damage?

6.      Inferences

This kind of question usually asks you to make a logical conclusion based on the information given. This type of question is prominently used in the listening section of the TOEFL exam.

Sample questions

a)      The author suggests that carnivores are usually found in:

b)      The passage suggest that Latin is not yet a dead language because:

7.      Inferences

This kind of question asks you to determine what a word or phrase refers to in a given passage. These are some sample questions:

a)      The word its in line 26, paragraph 3 refers to?

b)      Look at the word them in paragraph 2 and click on the bolded text that it refers to? (iBT TOEFL only)

8.      Paraphrased Sentences

In this kind of question, you are asked to determine the meaning of a whole sentence or phrase from a passage.

Sample questions:

a)      What does the author mean by: “It is not a trip but a journey.”

b)      Which sentence is closest in meaning to: “ An autocratic regime is unlikely to resist the democratic waves of change that occur in the Middle East today.”

Learn the essential skills and strategies to beat the TOEFL reading section

Reading for Main Ideas

Students usually confuse the main idea with the topic of a passage. The topic of a passage is what the passage is about. The main idea, however, is what the author’s main point of view/thesis about the subject is. The main idea or the thesis of the author usually occurs at the beginning of a passage.

The main idea of a passage is a general claim about the subject of a passage serving as an umbrella that catches all the details provided in the passage. If you are not sure whether something is the main idea or the supporting ideas/details in a passage, ask yourself the following question:

Is the sentence or phrase making a general statement or is it providing specific information about a topic? If it talks about a specific fact about a topic, it cannot be the main idea of a passage.

Besides passages, paragraphs also have main ideas. The main idea of a paragraph is often expressed at the beginning of a paragraph as a topic sentence.

Example

Identify the topic, main idea, and the supporting details of the following introductory paragraph excerpted form a passage:

Many people are afraid of snakes, but most snakes aren’t as dangerous as people think they are. There are more than 2,500 different species of snakes around the world. Only a small percentage of those species is poisonous, and only a few species have venom strong enough to kill a human being. Furthermore, snakes bite only 1,000–2,000 people in the United States each year, and only ten of those bites (that’s less than 1%) result in death. Statistically, many other animals are far more dangerous than snakes. In fact, in this country, more people die from dog bites each year than from snakes.

Topic: snakes

Main idea: “snakes are not as dangerous as people think they are.”

Supporting ideas: Only a small percentage of snakes are poisonous.

1% of snakebites result in death

There are more than 2,500 different species of snakes in the world

Explanation:

The paragraph’s general theme is “snakes”. In other words, the paragraph is about snakes. The main idea is expressed in the first sentence that is as: snakes are not as dangerous as people think they are.” This is the author’s thesis. Specific details follow the main idea. These details are about snakebites, snake venom, snakes’ species etc.

Vocabulary Questions

No matter how fluent and good you are in English, the TOELF exam will test you on words that are hard even for native English speakers. There are three strategies you can follow to figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word.

If you do not know the meaning of a word, try to figure out its meaning by looking at its context. Read the entire sentence in which the word is used to see what it could possibly mean.

After paying close attention to the context of the word, determine whether the word gives a positive or a negative connotation. This allows you to cross out synonyms in the answer choice that stands in contrast to the implication of the word.

Then try to replace the reaming choices with the given word to see which one makes the most sense. Choose the choice that you think can most appropriately replace the given word.

Example

What does the word bogus in this sentence mean?

I am so angry! The autographed picture of Michael Jordan turned out to be bogus. The man who sold it to me had signed it himself!

Bogus most nearly means:

a. fake, false

b. believable

c. interesting

d. expensive

Answer: a: fake or false

Explanation:

From the context of the sentence, it is obvious that bogus gives a negative connotation. Therefore, we can cross out b, and c. Replacing d would not make a good sentence since something would not turn out differently in terms of costs. One asks the cost of something before buying it. So the most appropriate answer is a.

Identifying facts and details

The type of questions that asks you about specific facts or details of a passage take the following three forms:

Specific fact or detail in a passage

Information or fact that is not mentioned in the passage

Identifying the location of the information in the passage

You cannot be expected to remember every single detail or fact that you read in a long passage in a short time nor can you be expected to memorize the information as you read it. You will also not have enough time to carefully and slowly look for the specific fact that you are asked to find in the passage. How can you effectively answer these types of questions?

You can do this by using these two strategies:

Look for key words in the question to know what exactly you should be looking for in the passage.

Use the structure of the passage to determine where you can find the specific detail or fact.

Example

Considering the earlier paragraph about snakes, answer the following question

How many species of snakes are there worldwide?

a. between 1,000–2,000

b. less than 100

c. less than 2,500

d. more than 2,500

Answer: More than 2,500

Explanation: The key words in this question are how many and species. This tells you that you are looking for a number that is related to species. Also you can see the structure of the paragraph, as it first talks about species, then about venom, and then about bites. Therefore, it is easier for you to just skim the passage and find the specific fact.

Recognizing the organizational pattern of a passage

Most passages are organized in the following four patterns:

a)      Chronological Order

When writers use time to talk about something, they write in a chronological order. Authors of historical events, personal experiences, instructions and procedures write chronologically ordered essays. Time expressions such as first, then, when, before, after etc. are used in these essays.

b)      Order of Importance

In this type of essay, authors organize their ideas by rank. They either go from the most important ideas or arguments to the least important ones or vice versa. The use of expressions such as firs and foremost, most importantly, last but not least, etc are prevalently used in these essays.

c)      Cause and Effect

A cause is someone or something that makes something happen. An effect is the change after a cause. Authors talking about a major event may use the cause and effect organizational pattern. For instance, one can talk about the event of September 11^th 2001 using cause and effect organization. What caused this tragic event and what the outcome was?

d)     Comparison and Contrast

When an author compares two similar things is called comparison. An author placing two different things side by side and talking about them is called contrast. For example, an author may compare and contrast the French Revolution with the American Revolution to demonstrate their similarities and differences.

Knowing these four patterns of organization helps you skim and understand the passage more quickly. You can predict what to expect next and where to look for specific information.
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Mass Media in Afghanistan

administrator — Sun, 17 Jul 2011 11:38:57 +0000

Mass Media is the “instrument of dissemination of information.¹”Radios, TVs, newspapers, magazines, pamphlets, online websites, and so on broadcast information to the public. Today this list goes beyond these sources because of the new inventions. A picture taken by a cell phone can effectively be part of mass media.

Mass Media is one of the critical needs of a society since it disseminates ongoing news, events, and information about the world. People become aware of the events in their respective geographical areas and the world. Without having information about others, a society cannot improve or to stand on its own. Today the success of many nations lies behind its mass media because it gives new ideas to the people.

During the three decades of war, Afghanistan’s mass media was severely damaged and Afghans were not able to benefit from the advantages of numerous TV channels, radio stations, magazines and other such useful sources of information. Likewise, during the Taliban regime Afghanistan’s mass media was further damaged leaving nothing but a Taliban-run radio² to broadcast bias information. Afghan people only heard what the Taliban believed. There was not a diverse range of information and perspectives.

Thus in 2002 when the Taliban regime collapsed, the government of Afghanistan led by the interim presidency of Hamid Karzai reactivated Radio Television of Afghanistan (RTA). RTA was a major success for the people of Afghanistan, but it was a state-controlled media. RTA provided news with a sole viewpoint in support of the government. Afghan people saw a brighter future by having at least the RTA although they had not yet have critical media.

Subsequently, mass media spread its roots within the Afghan society. Newspapers, magazines, radios, and television stations were rapidly growing in every province of Afghanistan. However, there was no law to support and protect Afghanistan’s emerging mass media. Reporters and journalists had a very hard time transferring news and information to the people. There were reports about kidnapping, killing, and beating of journalists by the Taliban and the government itself.

Later in 2004, the Constitutional Loya Jirga (Grand Assembly) made it official that the people of Afghanistan had the right to express
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themselves freely. Article 34 of the constitution of Afghanistan declares that, “Freedom of expression is inviolable… [and] every Afghan has the right to express his/her thought through speech, writing, illustration or other means, by observing the provisions.³” The same article adds that, “Every Afghan shall have the right…to print and publish on subjects without prior submissions to state authorities.³”

The constitution of Afghanistan has mentioned the freedom of expression, but it has not given details on the restriction of the freedom of mass media in Afghanistan. The constitution says that, “Directives related to the press, radio, and television as well as publications and other mass media shall be regulated by law.³” Journalists and others working in mass media waited for a long time to get their actual freedom—they were not granted the right to work independently.

Finally, Wolesi Jirga, the lower house of the Afghan parliament, passed the “Law on Mass Media” on May 22, 2007. The new law grants the right for the existence a free, independent, and “pluralist” media in Afghanistan. It is one of the best media laws in the region that gives freedom to all mass media including journalists, print media, audio-visual (Broadcast) media, and etc. The law also secures the official protection of journalists.

Mass media has been a major success for the people and the government of Afghanistan after the Taliban regime. Today people have a variety of sources to get information and news from around the world. The number of radios, TVs, newspapers, magazines, and online media is growing very fast in the country.

Written by:

Naimatullah Merzaiee, student at Colby College ME, U.S.A.

Works Cited

Law on Mass Media: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/pdfid/42d63b2b4.pdf

Afghanistan’s Media Battleground: http://knowledge.insead.edu/Afghanmediabattleground081226.cfm

Constitution of Afghanistan: http://www.supremecourt.gov.af/PDFiles/constitution2004_english.pdf

http://unama.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?ctl=Details&tabid=1783&mid=1882&ItemID=3489

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The War in Afghanistan

administrator — Sun, 17 Jul 2011 11:31:35 +0000

From the lenses of Realism, a realistic theory of international relations

It has been almost a decade since the United States invaded Afghanistan in 2001. Since then, the U.S. has deployed one hundred thousand troops and spent about $300 billion in the Afghan war efforts. However, with all its economic and military capabilities as the world’s superpower, the U.S. has not been able to win this war against poorly equipped guerrilla groups, Al-Qaeda and Taliban. Realist theory explains that the reason it has been difficult for the United States and its allies to succeed in this war is because important actors in this conflict such as the U.S., Pakistan, India and NATO nations are mainly concerned about their own security and interests. According to the realism paradigm the world is anarchic in which each states tries to maximize its own security in order to survive. The more power and influence a state has the higher, and the better its chances of survival. The purpose of this paper is to show how Pakistan-India security competition through interfering in Afghanistan has turned this war into almost a defeat for the U.S. and NATO nations.

The United States is at war in Afghanistan because it has serious national security interests at stake. Although al-Qaeda, to a realist, is not an official actor as a state in this war, yet they have proven to have the military capability and personnel to keep a major power, the U.S, from succeeding. The U.S. along with its allies has been fighting the Afghan war since the first administration of President Bush when the terrorist attacks of 9/11 caused this war. The Obama administration has refocused its energy in order to “disrupt, dismantle and defeat al-Qaeda in Pakistan and Afghanistan, and prevent their return to either country in the future.”The U.S. fights this crucial war mostly because it fears terrorist attacks from Afghanistan as President Obama said: “It is from here that we were attacked on 9/11, and it is from here that new attacks are being plotted as I speak.” The U.S. cannot let Afghanistan turn into a safe haven for al-Qaeda to coordinate terrorist attacks against the U.S. An article published in December 2010 by the Center for a New American Security further demonstrates these U.S. security interests:

The twin threats of al-Qaeda-inspired terrorism and nuclear proliferation into terrorist hands are considered vital interests because they threaten the United States and its citizenry directly; they represent threats so serious that the United States would go to war to defend against them.

Therefore, the U.S. government has tried to stay committed to victory in Afghanistan. President Obama increased the number of American troops in Afghanistan by another 30,000 in 2010. Although the President has set 2014 as the deadline for the evacuation of U.S. troops, Robert Gates, former U.S. secretary of defense, announced that the U.S. troops would be involved in training role to the Afghan forces beyond the 2014 deadline.

The U.S., and its allies are not engaged in the war against al-Qaeda not only in Afghanistan but also inside Pakistani borders, which makes Pakistan a pivotal actor in this war. There is no doubt about the safe havens and strongholds of al-Qaeda inside Pakistan as CNN article mentions: “Pakistan's tribal areas along the border with Afghanistan have become an accepted haven for al Qaeda leaders such as Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri.” The death of Osama bin Laden in Abottabad, Pakistan is another strong proof that al-Qaeda’s strongholds are in Pakistan though their operations appear in Afghanistan. Such cross-border homes for al-Qaeda enlarge the scope of this war beyond the Afghan borders. Since the United States cannot wage another such war inside Pakistan, Pakistan becomes a major contributor in the eradication of al-Qaeda from places like Waziristan. One would expect Pakistan both for its own security and as a recipient of billions of U.S. dollars in aid to fight al-Qaeda and Taliban inside its own borders, but Pakistan, except for words, has shown little action to fight the terrorists on the ground. Pakistan’s unwillingness to seriously fight terrorism is evident by an article that appeared in infowars.net stating that: “Biden [U.S. Voice President] conveyed the U.S. concern that Islamabad is not doing enough to combat Taliban and al-Qaeda during his meetings with Pakistani leaders” The Afghan government is also highly suspicious of Pakistani commitment to fighting al-Qaeda. An article published on e-Ariana asserts that: “Afghan envoy to the United States Said T. Jawad alleged that Pakistani military was not serious in the fight against terrorism despite its capacity to take the terrorists head-on.” Thus, it is clear that Pakistan is a major actor in this war, yet it has taken little active role in combating al-Qaeda.

What explains Pakistan’s behavior is its continuous struggle for its own security in South Asia. Pakistan is utilizing the current situation in Afghanistan to maximize its interests—security- vis-à-vis India and Afghanistan. There are three important strategies through which Pakistan has been trying to pursue its security interests, maintain and increase its power in the region: a) Pakistan is trying to create a client nation in Afghanistan that is controllable by Islamabad. b) Pakistan has been pouring U.S. military aid to increase its military capability in order to balance against India. c) Pakistan is buck-passing the threat of Al-Qaeda to the major nations at war.

First, Pakistan’s major concern is its rival neighbor, India, not al-Qaeda. Although historically the rivalry between India and Pakistan is rooted in their dispute over Kashmir, the tense Indo-Pak relationship is mostly due to continues security competition and the struggle to increase their relative powers in the region. Pakistan has used billions of U.S. aid, which it received to fight terrorism, on developing and modernizing its military capacities against India. The Times of India citing Pentagon report reveals that: “Pakistan has used a substantial amount of military aid from the US meant to fight terrorism to build up its army with modern weapons and equipment for a conventional warfare against India.” Another article on BBC also confirms the same misuse of U.S. aid by Pakistan: “Former president Pervez Musharraf says the U.S. military aid given to Pakistan during his tenure was used to strengthen defense against India.” These reports suggest that Pakistan has, in fact, abused the U.S. aid to balance against India while leaving al-Qaeda to gain strength inside its borders. Thus Pakistan’s military competition with India has hampered the U.S. progress in defeating al-Qaeda.

Second, because Pakistan is concerned about Indian hegemony and a strong Afghanistan in the future, it is trying to create a client nation in Afghanistan. A potent Afghanistan would diminish Pakistan’s power in the long run. Additionally, such a client nation would not only reduce Indian influence in Afghanistan/region, but it would also create a sphere of Pakistani hegemony. As a result, Pakistan is in favor of promoting an undemocratic regime through destabilizing and blocking any progress for a stable and self-reliable Afghan government. An article published by New York Times in the June of 2010 reveals Pakistan’s secret involvement to destabilize Afghanistan through Taliban:

The documents, made available by an organization called WikiLeaks, suggest that Pakistan, an ostensible ally of the United States, allows representatives of its spy service to meet directly with the Taliban in secret strategy sessions to organize networks of militant groups that fight against American soldiers in Afghanistan, and even hatch plots to assassinate Afghan leaders.

It is clear that Pakistan is playing a double game: On the one hand, it receives more than $1 billion from Washington every year to fight terrorism, while on the other hand, it is heavily involved in promoting terrorism inside Afghanistan. The New Yorker highl
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ights the U.S. concern about Pakistan’s counter productive behavior to the American war efforts:

In meeting after meeting, Obama prods his advisers to think deeply about the underlying problem of Pakistan’s perpetual insecurity regarding India; this fear, Obama notes, explains the I.S.I’s support for the Taliban and other radical groups, as a shield against prospective Indian hegemony.

Hence, Pakistan has been taking advantage of every opportunity to ensure a future safe for its own existence, influence, and power.

Third, given the fact that major powers like the U.S. and NATO nations such as Britain, France, Germany etc. are so committed to defeat al-Qaeda, Pakistan, if it perceives al-Qaeda a threat at all, is simply buck-passing the danger of terrorism to these countries. In other words, it is taking a free ride. Pakistan is smart enough not to exhaust its energy in fighting Pakistani Taliban and al-Qaeda within and outside its borders. Although Pakistan has been receiving aid from the U.S. in order to fight al-Qaeda, it has not done so on any effective level as discussed earlier.

It is not just Pakistan that is paranoid about stopping foreign influence in Afghanistan. India, too, is seeking to deter Pakistani supremacy and increase its own influence in Afghanistan. Although India, unlike Pakistan, does not share common borders with Afghanistan, it has been trying to create friendly relations with Afghanistan since 2001. According to The Wall Street Journal, Afghanistan, after Bhutan, is the second biggest recipient of aid from India. Additionally, India is the fifth biggest donor of aid to Afghanistan on the global scale. Such aid to Afghanistan is not out of pure good will. In fact, it is an attempt to increase Indian prominence in Afghanistan and eventually in the region. According to The Times of Kabul: “Bharati [Indian] aid to Kabul is to serve its own interests–to buy warlords, spread its influence, to put pressure on Pakistan, and to get access to Central Asia. All its projects are for Delhi’s interests.” Given Pakistan’s destabilizing role in Afghanistan, it is no surprise to see India seize the opportunity and befriend or use Afghanistan for its own increase of security and regional hegemony. In fact, India and Pakistan are fighting what Rahimullah Yusufzai, a well-known BBC correspondent who covers news in Khyber, has called a “proxy war” in Afghanistan.

The ongoing power politics between Pakistan and India that has caused increasing instability in Afghanistan is one of the major reasons why the U.S. has fallen short to reach victory. American strategists understand that the U.S. is not simply fighting a war against a feeble guerrilla group in the mountains of Afghanistan, but that it is in the middle of a war of power politics between India and Pakistan. The statement of Teresita Schaffer, the Director of South Asian Program at the Center for Strategic and International Studies in Washington D.C., confirms America’s acknowledgment of Indo-Pak rivalry in Afghanistan. Pakistan’s major objective in Afghanistan, she says, is “ to minimize India’s influence-down to zero—if at all possible,” and in response India wants “that Pakistan be the only game in town.” Perhaps, it is very difficult for the United States to reach victory in the war in Afghanistan if it has to meddle between two rival nuclear nations, Pakistan and India.

The war in Afghanistan has proven very frustrating and costly to the U.S. and NATO countries. The United States as the main actor in this war has faced sever human and capital damage. The U.S. has not been able to win the war in Afghanistan, due mainly to Pakistan’s increasing support for al-Qaeda, which stems from Pakistan’s security concerns. Out of pure self-interest, India’s support to the Afghan government exacerbating and fueling more Pakistani reaction in Afghanistan has also worsened the war scene for America. Although the United Sates is fighting an ideological war against al-Qaeda, the realistic approach of countries like Pakistan and India over gaining more power through Afghanistan has turned this war into a major conflict that almost yields a U.S. and NATO defeat.

Written by:

Sikandar Ahmadi, student at Williams College M.A, USA

Bibliography

“Afghan War: Obama Says Mission Difficult but on Track.” BBC. BBC, 16 Dec. 2010. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. .

“Analysts: Al Qaeda Has Safe Haven in Pakistan Frontier.” CNN. CNN, 24 Jan. 2007. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. .

“Behind Closed Doors.” Rev. of The New Yorker, by Steve Coll. The New Yorker. 11 Oct. 2010. Web. 18 Mar. 2011.

“Biden Urges Pakistan To Intensify Fight Against Terrorism.” RTT NEWS; Global Financial Newswires. RTT News, 12 Jan. 2011. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. http://www.rttnews.com/Content/Policy.aspx?Id=1525848&pageNum=2>

“Indian ‘aid’ Is a Trojan Horse for Afghanistan.” Times of Kabul. Times of Kabul, 17 Mar. 2010. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. .

Jha, Lalit K. “Pak Army Not Committed to Terror Fight: Jawad.” E-Ariana. Pajhwok, 27 Apr. 2009. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. .

Lusher, Emily. Pakistan, Afghanistan, and US Policy in the Region. Publication. Camden Conference, 19 Feb. 2010. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. .

Mazzetti, Mark, Jane Perlez, Andrew W. Lehren, and Eric Schmitt. “Pakistan Aids Insurgency in Afghanistan, Reports Assert.” The New York Times. The New York Times, 25 July 2010. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. .

“Musharraf Admits US Aid Diverted.” BBC News. Www.bbc.co.uk, 14 Sept. 2009. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. .

“NATO: Euro Terror Threat Justifies Afghan War.” CBSNews. Cbsnews.com, 8 Oct. 2010. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. .

Newman, Alex. “India-Pakistan 'Proxy War' Complicates Afghanistan.” New American. Www.thenewamerican.com, 09 Mar. 2010. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. http://www.thenewamerican.com/index.php/world-mainmenu-26/asia-mainmenu-33/3094-india-pakistan-proxy-war-complicates-afghanistan>

The White House. The White House Blog. A New Strategy for Afghanistan and Pakistan. Www.whitehouse.gov. The White House, 27 Mar. 2009. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. .

USA. Center for a New American Security. Center for New American Security. By David W. Www.cnas.org, Dec. 2010. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. .

Wesse, Bryn. “Canada Takes Notes from Dutch on Afghan Withdrawal.” Toronto Sun. Toronto Sun, 20 Aug. 2010. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. http://www.torontosun.com/news/canada/2010/08/20/15092886.html>

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Government’s Role in the Economy

administrator — Sun, 17 Jul 2011 11:27:39 +0000

What should the role of governments in underdeveloped economies be? Economists have looked at this phenomenon from a variety of perspectives. Some argue for radical market reforms while others look at government economic shock therapies more pessimistically. Over the past few decades the puzzling economic growth of China and India has also made the question of government role in the economy more appealing for economists to rethink the applicability of conventional free market reforms in developing countries. The reform strategies of India and China and other such developing countries show that governments’ role in the economy should not be in black-and-white terms, but more experimental, case specific, and gradual before their application to the countrywide economy.

When thinking about the government’s role in the economy, there are convincing arguments for both its activeness and inactiveness in underdeveloped and developing economies. Some say that governments should have an active role in an economy because a free market, left on its own, cannot function well due to externalities. Easterly, in his article Tales of Increasing Returns: Leaks, Matches and Traps, talks about investing in knowledge, technology, research and development as positive externalities whose benefits are much more to the society than to the individual investors. In a market economy without government intervention, individual investors will not invest in developing technologies because much of the returns to their investments leak to the society, leaving them with little incentives to invest. The society eventually ends up, as Easterly puts it, in “vicious circles” and “traps.” In order for the economy to pick up and grow, the government should subsidize education, R&D (Research and Development), and encourage new investments.

On the contrary, there are arguments that government’s role in the economy can be very detrimental. Governments can negatively affect an economy by promoting policies that not only fail to remedy economic problems but also deteriorate them. For example, the existence of a highly sophisticated bureaucratic system discourages the establishment of new businesses. If it takes months, which is usually the case in underdeveloped countries, to get a business license approved, investors will be reluctant to initiate new businesses. Governments can destroy growth by adopting policies such as import substitution, a policy that replaces imports for the growth of local industries. Studies show that economies open to trade grow faster than closed ones as the article Government Can Kill Growth by Groucho Marx notes: “The free trade arguments are now supported by the experience of the past few decades, which has found that more open economies are richer and grow faster.” Noticing how wrong government policies in the market can hinder growth suggests very limited government participation in the process of economic development. Unfortunately it is not a clear-cut issue as to whether or not the government should play a big role in injecting reforms in the economy. That is why the middle ground explained below suggests a constructive and better role that governments can play to grow the economies of developing countries.

Looking at the economic growths of countries like India, many conclude that the application of so called “best practices”, a set of standard market liberalization reforms such as the assurance of property rights, open trade, fiscal policies to keep inflation low etc., will automatically result in growth in any country. This, however, is not entirely true. Ha
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usman’s, director of the Center for International Development and professor of the Practice of Economic Development at Harvard University, work reveals that: “Only 14.5 percent of major economic liberalizations are followed by growth accelerations.” Thus a blind conventional practice of free market practices might not be the best approach to economic growth for every country. Additionally, in the article Normalizing Industrial Policy by Dani Rodrik, suggests that “best practice” reforms did not help El Salvador:

The Salvadoran puzzle is why a substantial reform effort during early 1990’s – involving a complete opening up of the economy to trade and finance, an impressive macroeconomic stabilization including dollarization, a significant doze of privatization and deregulation, and the establishment of democracy—has failed to pay off economically?

Therefore, putting a predetermined to-do list of reforms for every country might not generate the intended results for growth.

How can governments better engage in economic growth? It is safer and economically wise for a government to target specific market failures and bring reforms in the form of what Hausmann calls a “Scaffolding approach.” Hausmann identifies the inapplicability of conditional market reforms to every situation by saying that: “The ‘best practice’ approach consists of trying to build a bridge with no scaffolding. It looks at the best bridges around and tries to mimic them. Ad hoc solutions are the scaffolding that supports the structure while it is being built” It is much easier and important for a government to look closely to identify problems within a specific portion of the economic system, find a solution and then, if successful, apply it in the countrywide economy. Hausmann also mentions that if crime is stopping tourism industry from developing, it is easier to provide security in a limited part of the country than it is to do it across the country. Once tourism is flourishing, one may have the resources and political conditions to extend security. China’s adoption of such a gradual and experimental reform through dual-track pricing system proved very successful.

China started safe. The government introduced dual-track pricing system by placing a certain amount of quotas on industries’ production at government-determined prices. Once industries fulfilled their quotas, they were free to produce goods at markets prices and quantities. This approach served friendly both the government and the market. Once this proved successful, the Chinese government slowly eliminated quotas as described by Yingyi Qian: “Because of the fast growth of market track, the planned track became less significant as compared to the market track… in 1978, 97 percent of retail sales were under the planned track [subject to government pricing] but only 31 percent in 1989.” Having experienced that market pricing was fruitful, China slowly eliminated government pricing.

Government role in the economy becomes a controversial issue once faced with the facts that government reforms can either kill or stimulate growth. Government’s role is crucial in developing countries that need reforms. However, best practice reforms as a general trend cannot remedy the problems of countries that are very different from one another. Therefore, neither a blind application of best practice nor a complete closed market economy can solve the problem. A better way to bring about reforms in developing countries is by applying light and well-targeted reforms and then incrementally making it applicable to the economy countrywide.

Written by:

Sikandar Ahmadi,student at Williams College, MA, U.S.A.

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No	Section	Description	Time
1	Reading	3-5 passages, each followed by 10-12 questions	60-100 minutes
2	Listening	a. 4-6 lectures each followed by 6 questions b. 2-3 conversations each followed by 5 questions	60-90 minutes
3	Speaking	4 tasks: 2 independent and 2 integrated	20 minutes
4	Writing	2 tasks: 1 independent and 1 integrated	50 minutes

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2	Kabul	-	iBT	-	No Dates Currently Available
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